Aaron Fairbrook, Environmental Science
 

         Resources that supply energy are rapidly decreasing in our world.  Energy consumption has been increasing, bringing the threat of a different lifestyle into view.  Renewable resources which are thought to be the answer to the dwindling natural resources, supply energy through the forces of nature.  Water (waves, tides and hydropower), wind, sunlight, and geothermal sources are natural occurrences that if properly tapped, can yield large amounts of energy.  Advancements in technology are being developed to transform these natural sources into energy to be used for human needs.  In Pullman and its eastern Washington region, wind power, solar, and possible hydropower are feasible options for alternative energy supplies, however, wind power will be the focus of this paper.  There is no geothermal activity, and/or a suitable body of water for tidal and wave power to fulfill the community’s energy needs.  Therefore, wind power will be examined for possible future energy needs for Pullman and WSU, thereby achieving and celebrating a more effective regional economy and a more sustainable community.

Indicators, Strategies, and Benefits

        The indicators (I’s in bold and underlined) measure progress towards achieving sustainable wind energy.  The indicator starts at number four because the first three are covered in "Renewable Resources for the 21st Century," by Trent Brown.  The strategies (S’s in bold) are recommended actions to improve the indicator.  The I’s and S’s are followed by a brief statement of societal and environmental benefits from utilizing wind energy.

I.4. Increase the energy derived from the wind.
S.4.a. Placing a wind farm on hilltops near the community of Pullman to generate renewable energy.
S.4.b. Develop methods, such as diesel electric generators and/or turbines on top of buildings.
S.4.c. Encourage placement of individual wind turbines on private lands
S.4.d. Enhance community awareness about the power of wind.
        "Wind turbines installed on less than 1% of the land in the 48 contiguous states could provide 20% of current U.S. power needs" (Maier, 1996).
        Wind energy has been used throughout history for various human tasks.  One of the earliest confirmed wind machines was found in Persia.  The wind energy was used to pump water with lifts to irrigate gardens several centuries before Christ (Schefter, 1982: 5).  The design of windmills changed over the years as more efficient windmills were constructed.  Soldiers returning back to Europe from the Crusades in the eleventh century,  introduced improved windmills that were implemented in Holland and England (Wann, 1996: 76).  In the last half of the 19th century, cattle ranchers would drill down to reach water under arid terrain, erect wind driven pumps, and fill ponds and tanks for their herd (Schefter, 1982: 6).  Windmills in the 90’s consist of a 15 foot propeller diameter, requires roughly 10-20 mph wind speed for two to three days per week, and provided 400-500 kw (kilowatt) hours per month (Simmons, 1975: 131).  However, improvements in the wind mill have increased the generating capacity under various wind velocities.  "Wind power generating capacity grew by 32% from 1994 to 1995 and has increased by a total of 150% since 1990" (Maier, 1996).  Wind energy has the potential to supply 20 percent of America’s electricity, which would require 18,000 square miles of land for development (Wann, 1996: 79).
        Wind technology is continuing to increase in efficiency.  According to Walker and Jenkins (1997), in Denmark during the 1980’s, a wind turbine placed on a 20 m tower could drive a 55 kw induction generator.  By 1992, new turbines were placed on 35 m towers and had the capacity of 400-500 kw.  Now an approval and certification system to improve the quality of Danish wind turbines has been implemented.  Wind turbines installed after July 1992 must meet requirements for documentation of all design criteria, which includes loading, safety levels, and power curves.  Documentation of quality procedures are also implemented, which includes manufacturing, transportation, installation, and service.
        The main design features of a wind turbine for electricity generation are the rotor, the transmission system, the generator, and the yaw and control systems (Walker and Jenkins, 1997: 37).  Most of these components are held in the yaw, which hold the blades.  The electricity travels down the tower to the grid connector (Walker and Jenkins, 1997: 37). Some wind turbines have 2 propellers, while others have three blades and are 2-3% more efficient (Walker and Jenkins, 1997: 40).
        Wind turbines would be able to supply energy to the WSU campus and to Pullman.  According to David Wann, a single, large turbine can supply eighty house’s worth of clean electricity (1996: 74).  This would mean that Pullman wouldn’t need too many turbines to provide power for the community.  However, with a wind farm, Pullman, WSU, and possibly Moscow and the University of Idaho, could benefit from wind energy.  Wind farms have reduced hardware costs, reduced operation and maintenance costs, and can benefit from tax incentives.
        Pullman, Washington is located east of the Cascade Mountains where an abundance of sunlight floods the area during the Summer and Fall seasons.  Wind is actually a form of solar energy in which, "2% of all solar energy reaching the earth is converted to wind energy" (Hunt, 1981: 21).  However, there are many other variables when choosing sites for wind farms.
        Plans to design wind plants require many different steps  including understanding wind power aerodynamics, selecting sites with good wind regime, measuring wind regime, consultation with local planning departments, consultation with utilities, defining the function the wind system is to perform, and obtaining the latest information from turbine manufacturers (Pierce, 1984: 17).  In addition, hillsides usually work better for wind turbines, as wind is not blocked by trees and other obstacles.  An example of hillside installations can be observed on the Altamont Pass in the coastal mountains of California.  Wind from local land-sea temperature differences provides a low variation in annual preformance (Walker and Jenkins, 1997: 154)
        The steps in designing a sufficient wind farm is essential for a practical area, without upsetting other interests from other groups.  These groups can consist of concerned hunters, who are worried about bird mortality from the turbines, to upsetting local utilities.  Farmers may not be excited about a wind farm in or near their area as it takes up space.  However, modern wind farms uses 1% of the total land area it occupies and the wind turbines and their bases occupy only 0.2% (Garrad, 1991).
        The crucial aspect in determining where to build a wind farm is the average wind velocity.  Wind is unpredictable, some days it may blow, while other days there may be a dead calm.  According to the Wind Energy Resource Atlas of the United States, Pullman has a wind velocity of 10.8 mph.  This is a Class 2 wind and is considered a useful energy source.  However, careful testing may move this wind velocity up or down in the charts.
        One solution to low winds is to apply a diesel electric generator.  "Such a system would have the benefit of using the free wind resource, of saving on existing levels of fuel consumption, and of providing power on demand to meet the consumer load" (Hunter and Elliot, 1994: 8).  This method would provide power when there was insufficient wind. Although not the most sustainable method, this method would decrease the amount of non-renewable resources.  This method may not be very economical due to very low winds, but solar-diesel, hydro-diesel, or charge-cycle batteries may be more viable options (Hunter and Elliot, 1994: 8).  These methods would be cheaper to implement and consist of linking the windmill to a home’s active solar pump and/or coupled with an electric water pump.  The charge-cycle battery works by storing captured wind energy in a battery that can be utilized later.
        Another possibility would be to construct wind turbines on some of the buildings at WSU and Pullman.  This system would have the turbines out of the way from everybody and the turbines would be higher in the air, thus benefiting from increased wind potential.  The problem with this idea is that there may be too much noise generated from the turbines, thus, distracting students and workers.  It may also cause problems during lightning storms.
        The last two strategies could work together.  As people learn about the benefits of wind power, they may be inclined to set up their own, smaller versions of wind turbines in their own yard.  This could be their main power supply for their household.  "The acceptability of a wind plant depends to a very considerable extent on public recognition of the need to conserve ever scarcer reserves of fuel and to reduce harmful emissions" (Walker and Jenkins, 1997: 83).  As people learn more about wind energy, ideas will grow to help Pullman and WSU become more sustainable.
        There are many wind hazards that can occur on a planned site for a wind farm.  These hazards consist of turbulence, strong wind shear, extreme winds, thunderstorms, icing, heavy snows, floods, landslides, extreme temperatures, salt spray, and blowing dust (Hunt, 1981: 36).  There has also been concern that wind turbines negatively affect birds.  According to James Schefter, careful observation and experience show birds have no difficulty in avoiding the wind turbine blades (1982: 70).  To avoid potential detrimental effects to bird life, wind farms need to be carefully placed so to avoid migration patterns and nesting areas (Walker and Jenkins, 1997: 77).  Noise from the rotor blades and possible interference with television reception are also potential problems (Dept. of Energy, no date).  Therefore, the site at Pullman must be carefully selected to avoid these hazards.  Although avoiding salt spray would not be difficult, the main concerns for a potential wind farm site would be heavy snows and blowing dust.  These activities occur frequently in the Pullman community due to heavy snows during the winter, and slash and burn methods used by agricultural farmers for their crops and small dust storms.
        Wind turbines have features to help protect them from weather-related hazards.  For example, the blades of the turbine can be made of metal, which when struck by lightning, will send the charge along the blades, to the tower, and then depositing the charge into the ground (Schefter 1982: 11).  Another example would be to construct blades of aluminum painted (copper edged) spruce-wood propellers, which have been proven to survive ice and frost conditions better (Simmons 1975: 132).
        Smaller wind turbines, such as the ones proposed for Pullman, have many other uses besides electricity production.  There are four varieties of energy that can be created.  These include: 1) Direct heat, which can warm water to temperatures useful for heating buildings. 2) Mechanical power, typically used for pumping water or driving machinery 3) Direct-current electricity, which is useful in a variety of remote applications and 4) Alternating current to power the spectrum of modern electrical devices, perhaps interconnected with local utility grids (Schefter 1982: 33).  Wind energy can be utilized to feed our energy needs in certain areas.  Therefore, with careful placement of the wind farm, with ideas to combat wind hazards, and using the needed type of energy derived from the wind, wind farms may prove to be a very effective way for conserving energy in Pullman.

        Wind farms are starting to sprout up all across the nation generating pollution-free energy.  "California, with one-third of the world’s installed wind capacity, has seen its fleet average rise from 500 kwh/m²/yr in the early 1980’s to 800 kwh/m²/yr in the mid 1990’s" (Gipe, 1997).  This increase in generation is due to better turbines that are more productive.  "Developing countries with a large demand for power, such as India and China, are also developing their wind resources at a rapid rate" (Maier, 1996).  In Europe, Germany has started to reap the benefits of wind energy.  "By the end of the year installed capacity in Germany will approach 2,000 mw (million watts), exceeding the 1614 mw in North America" (Maier, 1996).  "The Department of Energy forecasts a 600% increase in wind energy use in the nation in the next 15 years" (Dept. of Energy, no date).  This means that by the middle of the next century, wind could replace hydro-electric dams, as wind would be generating the same 10% of electricity for the U.S. that dams supply today (Dept. of Energy, no date).  Therefore, the concept of wind energy is spreading globally as a renewable resource.
        Utilizing wind energy could benefit Pullman in many ways.  The community would conserve our non-renewable resources that are rapidly decreasing, the community would be self-sufficient, and the energy would come from natural processes.  The wind farm could be incorporated on hilltops, depending on the location of the greatest average wind velocity.  Therefore wind energy could be implemented in the Palouse region to help reach the goal of sustainability.

References

Boyle, G., 1996. "Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future." Oxford University Press.

Garrad, A.D., 1991. "Time for Action: Wind Energy in Europe." European Wind Energy Association, Rome.

Gipe, P., 1997. "Overview of Worldwide Wind Generation." John Wiley & Sons.

Internet: http://keynes.fb12.tuberlin.de/luftraum/konst/overview.html.

Hunt, D., 1981. "Windpower." Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.

Hunter, R. and Elliot, G., 1994. "Wind-diesel systems." Cambridge University Press.

Maier, Jessica. 1996. "Worldwatch Institute calls Wind Power the World’s Fastest Growing Energy Source." Internet: http://www.igc.apc.org/awea/news/news960814ww.html

Pierce, P., James, J., and Kinnear, N., 1984. "A Preliminary Survey of Wind Generation in Washington." Washington State Energy Office.

Schefter, J., 1982. "Capturing Energy from the Wind." Scientific and Technical Branch, NASA.

Simmons, D., 1975. "Wind Power." Noyes Data Corporation.

Walker, J. and Jenkins N., 1997. "Wind Energy Technology." Wiley & Sons.

Wann, D., 1996. "Deep Design: a Pathway to a Livable Future." Island Press.

Wind Energy Resource Atlas of the United States of America. Department of Energy.
 
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