Kenneth Birkel, Environmental Science and Regional Planning
Transportation is a critical
issue for the success and sustainability of WSU, Pullman, and our entire
planet, Earth. Sustainable transportation systems
are crucial in enhancing our quality of life and protecting local and global
environments. Private automobiles are the dominant mode of transportation
in the United States (US) and the Pacific Northwest (NW). This vechicular
driven transportation system is not very effective because of the environmental,
economic and social costs associated with automobiles, their relatively
low energy efficiency, and their inefficient use of land resources.
Public transit, walking, and bicycling are for more sustainable modes of
transportation. The purpose of this report is to discuss strategies
to facilitate and foster the development of these alternate modes of transportation
in WSU/Pullman.
Private automobiles are
the dominant mode of inter-city transportation in the US (UN, 1993) and
existing transportation systems are built for and revolve around the car.
Suburban sprawl has resulted in longer commuting distances and an increased
dependence on automobiles. The trips made by car, as a percentage
of total trips, have been steadily increasing at the expense of mass transit,
bicycling, and walking in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. In 1993,
auto related trips constituted 90% of total travel in the NW (Durning,
1996). This trend has dire implications for the well-being of ecosystems
and the sustainability of our present civilization. Cars are responsible
for 20% of the carbon dioxide, 34% of the nitrogen oxides, and 27% of the
hydrocarbons produced in the United States (Gershon and Gilman, 1992).
Carbon dioxide is the most abundant greenhouse gas and nitrogen oxides
contribute to acid rain (UN, 1993). Hydrocarbons cause low altitude
ozone smog (Gershon and Gilman, 1992). The pollution from cars is
degrading air quality and damaging ecosystems. Air pollution produced
in Pullman contaminates the air we breathe, contributes to the degradation
of regional and global environments, and diminishes our quality of life
and the livability of Pullman. Alternate forms of transportation
are less polluting. A single occupant car produces 2.9 times more
carbon dioxide per passenger mile than an inter-city bus (SCR, 1995). Bicycling
and walking do not cause air pollution. Reducing pollution in Pullman
will contribute to sustainable local and global environments. Healthy
ecosystems are critical to our quality of life and the livability of our
communities.
The private automobile is
the most energy intensive mode of inter-city transportation. In urban
transportation, the private automobile’s energy use per passenger mile
is approximately double that of mass transit, 20 times greater than walking,
and 30 times greater than bicycling (Loftness, 1978). Other estimates
indicate that single occupant automobiles use 4.3 times as much energy
per passenger mile as buses in the US (Kulash, 1980). Due to their
relatively low energy efficiency, automobiles are wasting oil, a non-renewable
fossil fuel. Petroleum products are used for heating and cooling
of buildings, energy sources for industry, industrial products, and inputs
of fertilizer and energy into agricultural systems. Conservation
of oil supplies through the use of energy efficient transportation systems
will conserve oil for other important uses. The US imports large
quantities of oil in order to satiate the demand for gasoline and other
oil based products. This has a negative impact on our nation’s trade
balance and our economic security is being weakened as a result.
The Gulf War illustrated that foreign oil supplies are not secure and that
our dependence on oil can lead our country into war.
The insidious impact of
our reliance on personal automobiles extends to land, natural resources,
and human communities. DeBell (1970) calculated the relative efficiencies
of urban transportation modes in terms of the portion of the earth’s surface
they use-the number of passengers per lane width per hour. Buses
are 17 times more efficient than autos, bicycles are 2.8 times and walking
is 1.7 times more efficient than autos. Land that is not used for
roads, parking facilities, and other transportation infrastructure is available
for housing, agricultural production, open space, and other important community
uses. Conserving land for other uses is especially crucial because
of increasing human populations. Rees and Wackernagel (1996) have
completed an analysis of the impacts of transportation systems in terms
of their ecological footprint. They define an ecological footprint
analysis as "an accounting tool that enables us to estimate the resource
consumption and waste assimilation requirements of a defined human population
or economy in terms of a corresponding productive land area (Rees and Wackernagel,
1996: 9)." They calculated that the ecological footprint on a yearly
basis of one person travelling 10 kilometers each workday is approximately
122 square meters for bicycles, 300 square meters for buses, and 1,530
square meters for cars. Using buses, biking, and walking instead
of cars will reduce our resource consumption and environmental impact.
Reducing our ecological footprint will help sustain viable ecosystems for
future generations.
Transportation systems provide
for our needs to commute to work, stores, school, and recreation.
Unfortunately, our dependence on private automobiles is detrimental to
our quality of life and the livability of our communities. A sense
of community is lost when individuals are isolated in their private automobiles.
Human interaction is reduced to glances through a car window. The
conversations on buses, greetings of passing pedestrians on the street,
and interactions in public spaces all contribute to a sense of belonging
to a community. The extensive transportation infrastructure that
is needed for cars deprives the community of land that could be devoted
to open space and parks. Our cities have become dissected by roads,
covered by parking facilities, and devoid of aesthetic appeal. Roads
are physical barriers to pedestrians, divide neighborhoods, and are visually
unappealing. The transportation infrastructure overwhelms and dominates
the city diminishing its vibrancy and allure as a place to live.
The richness of the landscape is reduced to accommodate a transportation
grid. The elegance of buildings, beauty of landscapes, and subtle
details of nature are difficult to discern at the speeds at which cars
travel. Pedestrians and wildlife become accident victims rather than
pleasant encounters. Gridlock consumes our time and frays our nerves.
Air pollution contaminates the air we rely on for sustenance and life.
The car has subverted the pleasant ambience of the city.
In summary, our collective
choice to rely on personal automobiles for transportation is degrading
local and global environments, causing air pollution, consuming non-renewable
fossil fuels, wasting land resources, and diminishing the livability of
communities. Our dependence on single occupant automobiles as the
primary means of transit is unsustainable. Public transit, walking,
and bicycling cause less environmental degradation, conserve fossil fuels
and land, and improve the quality of life in our communities.
Indicators, Strategies, and Benefits
The indicators (I’s in bold and underlined) can measure our progress towards achieving sustainable transportation systems. The strategies (S’s in bold) are recommended actions to improve each indicator. The I’s and S’s are followed by a discussion of the various societal, economic and environmental benefits.
I.1. Increase the per capita use of public transit.
S.1. Increase the use of public transit by improving the convenience
of linkages, increasing
frequency, areas of service, and funding.1, 2
Implementing these strategies
will improve air quality, conserve non-renewable energy resources, reduce
our reliance on oil imports, and reduce the consumption of land for roads
(DeBell, 1970). Public transit can serve our transportation needs
and is more resource efficient than private cars. Improvement in
the convenience of linkages is critical to increasing the use of public
transit. Public transit needs to provide convenient access to work,
schools, commerce, and recreation. Surveys of riders/potential riders
and studies of transportation linkages can be used to define and meet the
community’s transportation needs. Increasing the frequency of service
on heavily used routes, expanding service into all areas of Pullman, expanding
evening/night service, and adding weekend service will make public transit
more convenient and practical for riders. Expansion of service will
increase the viability of public transit as a transportation option. Drivers
of Pullman Transit buses count riders by hand held computers.1
Per capita use of public transit could be calculated by integrating Pullman
Transit statistics and population statistics.
Expansion and improvement
of public transit is dependent on funding.1 WSU has a
pre-paid fare agreement with Pullman Transit that allows WSU students,
faculty, and staff to ride the bus free.1, 2 This
also applies to public school students. For WSU students, the source
of funds for the pre-paid fare agreement is student service and activities
fees.2 WSU students account for approximately 85% of the total
riders on Pullman Transit.1 The funds from the pre-paid
fare agreement only account for 10% of Pullman Transit’s operating budget.1
WSU students pay motor vehicle excise taxes and utility taxes which contribute
to Pullman Transit's funding.1 Despite these other contributions
WSU students are receiving benefits in excess of their proportional contribution.
One way to increase funding for public transit would be to charge all WSU
students, faculty, and staff a special transportation fee.2
The proceeds would be dedicated to public transit.2
The University of Washington
has a U-Pass Program that could be a model for WSU. 2 Students
at the University of Washington are billed $9.00 per month for a U-Pass,
which provides unlimited access to public transit. The
proceeds are used to fund public transit. Student participation in
the program was 81% during the 1995-96 academic year. Faculty and
staff participation was 64%. The U-Pass program was instituted in
1991 and the use of single occupant automobiles by students as a mode of
transportation to campus has decreased from 25% in 1989 to 15% in 1996.
Also the use of public transit by students increased from 21% to 34% during
that same time frame. Similar trends have been seen for faculty and
staff although the trends are less pronounced (UW, 1997).
I.2. Expand the per capita use of non-motorized modes of transportation.
S.2.a. Increase the use of bicycling and walking as methods of commuting
to work, schools, commercial services, and recreational facilities.
S.2.b. Complete the Bill Chipman/Palouse Trail and improve the trail
by planting vegetation for shade canopy and windbreak purposes.3
S.2.c. Provide pedestrian access to commercial developments.
The benefits will include
improved air quality, conservation of non-renewable energy resources, and
healthier people. Bicycling and walking do not consume fossil fuels
and do not cause air pollution. The promotion of bicycling and walking
as modes of transit is crucial to the development of sustainable transportation
systems. Completion of the Bill Chipman/Palouse Trail will provide
a linkage for bicyclists between Pullman and Moscow, Idaho. Planting
vegetation to provide shade and decrease winds will improve the quality
of the bicycling experience.3 All commercial developments
should have complete sidewalks leading to the stores. Shopko, for
example, can be accessed by car from two roads, but has sidewalk access
from only 1 road. Providing sidewalks that lead into commercial developments
will encourage people to walk to services by improving pedestrian comfort
and safety. The City of Pullman does not track per capita use of
non-motorized modes of transportation.4 Surveys could
be used to obtain statistics for this indicator.
I.3. Increase the percentage of streets with safe bike lanes and
sidewalks to promote bicycle and pedestrian modes of commuting.
S.3. Increase funding and implement the City of Pullman’s Pedestrian/Bicycle
Circulation Plan.
The benefits are the improvement
and expansion of Pullman’s non-motorized transportation system (City of
Pullman, 1986). Streets with bike lanes and functional sidewalks
provide better options for people inclined to use non-motorized transit.
At present, approximately 10% of Pullman’s streets have bike lanes and
approximately 85% have sidewalks.4 The existing system
of bike lanes does not furnish bicyclists with safe and adequate pathways.
Existing sidewalks are not always continuous because of missing sections
and are often poorly maintained. The City of Pullman has a Pedestrian/Bicycle
Circulation Plan, which is a long-range plan. Goals and objectives
will be achieved through retrofitting of sidewalks and bike lanes as part
of the city’s ongoing capital improvement projects for roads.4
Increased funding would allow the construction of bike lanes, repair
of existing sidewalks, and installation of missing sidewalks. Increased
funding could be derived from an increase in the gasoline tax or sales
tax. An increase in the gasoline tax would have the dual benefit
of increasing funding and reducing gasoline consumption.
Eugene, Oregon has successfully
developed an extensive network of bike paths and lanes to facilitate bicycling.
The government of Netherlands has promoted bicycling by establishing bike
paths, parking spaces for bicycles, rent-a-bike facilities at railroad
stations, and methods for bringing bicycles on board trains. Bicycles
account for 9 percent of all commuters in the Netherlands and in some cities
they account for more than 40 percent of all commuter trips (Bleviss and
Walzer, 1991).
I.4. Raise the percentage of the WSU Campus devoted to pedestrian
and bicycle use.
S.4. Integrate more sidewalks and bicycle paths into the design
of the WSU campus, minimize parking in the center of campus, and increase
the use of pedestrian areas.3
Installation of bike lanes
on Stadium Way and other campus commuter routes will encourage bicycling
and increase the safety of bicyclists using those routes. Incorporating
more sidewalks and pedestrian malls into the WSU campus will help shape
a landscape that favors pedestrians.3 Removal of parking
in the center of campus will create space for landscaping, result in a
more favorable carbon dioxide/oxygen exchange, and eliminate convenience
of access to the campus core as an incentive to drive.3
The prevailing preference
for automobiles will be difficult to change without infrastructure that
is conducive to biking and walking. Stadium Way, the main street
through campus, lacks bike lanes. University owned student housing
does not always provide complete pedestrian access. For example,
many of the sidewalks from the apartments in Steptoe Village extend only
to the parking lot. Complete sidewalks are not provided to the adjacent
arterial streets that have bus stops and sidewalks leading to campus.
Sidewalk design that is attentive to campus topography will ensure that
pedestrians of all abilities are accommodated. Sidewalks that are
blended with the landscape rather than imposed on it, will provide pathways
that are functional and aesthetically appealing.
I.5. Increase the number of commercial services and places
of employment located within or near residential areas to improve the ease
with which residents can commute between home, work, stores, and services.
S.5.a. Include service centers within residential neighborhoods
that offer grocery stores, convenience stores, restaurants, and laundromats.4
S.5.b. Mix homes, offices, shops, and places of employment
in the same neighborhood (Durning, 1996).
S.5.c. Promote land use patterns that offer employment near residential
areas (UN, 1993).
The benefits are shorter
trips, reduced transportation linkages, and reduced dependence on automobiles.4
Benefits also include the alleviation of urban sprawl and the creation
of a more diverse and stable community (Durning, 1996). Employment
and commercial services located too far from residential neighborhoods
encourages the use of automobiles. Mixed use neighborhoods can provide
convenient access for residents to jobs and commercial services.
Shorter distances between residential areas and other human activity centers
will encourage the use of non-motorized modes of transit and increase the
livability of Pullman. Residential and commercial uses have been
mixed in the West End Neighborhood of Vancouver, British Columbia resulting
in a decreased dependence on automobiles and increased use of bicycling
and walking (Durning, 1996).
I. 6. Increase the density of Pullman and discourage auto driven
sprawl and strip development.
S.6.a. Promote a compact community.4
S.6.b. Encourage dense development and discourage sprawl.
Benefits will include reduced
transportation linkages and a reduced dependence on automobiles.4
Additional benefits are the increased cost effectiveness and efficiency
of public transit (SCR, 1995). Suburban sprawl and strip development
have made people dependent on their cars. Public transit, bicycling,
and walking are more feasible in compact communities. The cost effectiveness
and efficiency of public transit are enhanced as the density of development
increases (SCR, 1995). igh-density development in the West End Neighborhood
of Vancouver has decreased dependence on automobiles and promoted the use
of public transit, bicycling, and walking (Durning, 1996).
Conclusions
Our current transportation system is unsustainable because of its heavy reliance on private automobiles. Sustainable transportation systems will incorporate designs that facilitate and foster non-motorized transit and resource efficient modes of motorized transportation. Public transit, bicycling, and walking will be key components of sustainable transportation systems and livable communities. Increased funding is critical in order for public transit to become a viable alternative to the private automobile. Increased funding can be used to improve the convenience of linkages and increase the frequency and area of service. Landscape design and construction of infrastructure that promotes the use of bicycling and walking are especially important because they are nonpolluting and resource conserving forms of transportation. Sustainable transportation systems will be most successful in a community that has neighborhoods of mixed land uses, close proximity of employment and commercial services to residential areas, compact design, and high density development.
References:
Bleviss, D. and Walzer, P., 1991. Energy for Motor Vehicles. Energy for Planet Earth: Readings from Scientific American Magazine. Freeman and Co. pp 47-58.
City of Pullman, 1986. Pedestrian/Bicycle Circulation Plan. City of Pullman.
DeBell, G., 1970. The Environmental Handbook. Ballantine Books. p 367.
Durning, A., 1996. The Car and the City: 24 Steps to Safe Streets and Healthy Communities. Northwest Environment Watch. p73.
Gershon, D. and Gilman, R., 1992. Household EcoTeam Workbook. Woodstock: Global Action Plan for the Earth. pp 71-81.
Kulash, D.J., 1980. Energy-Efficient Modes of Transportation: Some Comments on Urban Transportation in the United States and Latin America. Congressional Budget Office. As cited in Noll, S.A., 1982. Transportation Energy Conservation in Developing Countries. Center for Energy Policy Research, Resources for the Future, Discussion Paper D-73K. Washington, DC. As cited in United Nations Department for Development Support and Management Services Energy Branch, 1993. Energy Efficiency in Transportation: Alternatives for the Future. United Nations. p 107.
Loftness, R., 1978. Energy Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold. p 741.
Rees, W. and Wackernagel, M., 1996. Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. New Society Publishers. p160.
SCR., 1995. Sustainable Community Roundtable. State of the Community: South Puget Sound. Sustainable Community Roundtable,Olympia. pp 22-4.
UN, 1993. United Nations Department for Development Support and Management Services Energy Branch, Energy Efficiency in Transportation: Alternatives for the Future. United Nations. p 107.
UW,1997. University of Washington Transportation Office. U-Pass Annual Report. University of Washington. p 8.
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